IMO 2026 · Problem 3

Let \(n\) be a positive integer. Liu Bang and Xiang Yu have a stick of length 1 and want to divide it between themselves. Liu marks at most \(n\) points on the stick, and then Xiang marks at most \(n\) points on the stick. The marked points are distinct. Then, the stick is cut at all marked points, creating a number of pieces. Afterwards, they take turns claiming any unclaimed piece of the stick, with Liu going first. Each player's goal is to maximise the total length of their own pieces.

For each \(n\), determine the largest value \(c\) such that Liu may guarantee a total length of at least \(c\), regardless of Xiang's play.

Official text of the problem. Official problem paper (PDF)

Answer

\(\displaystyle c=\frac{2^n}{2^{n+1}-1}\).

Solution

First, suppose that after all cuts the piece lengths, in decreasing order, are \[ x_1\ge x_2\ge\cdots\ge x_p>0. \] The value Liu can guarantee in the claiming stage is \[ x_1+x_3+x_5+\cdots=\frac{1+D}{2}, \qquad D=x_1-x_2+x_3-x_4+\cdots+(-1)^{p+1}x_p. \] Indeed, if Liu always takes a longest remaining piece, his \(j\)-th piece has length at least \(x_{2j-1}\), since only \(2j-2\) pieces have previously been claimed. Similarly, if Xiang always takes a longest remaining piece, his \(j\)-th piece has length at least \(x_{2j}\). These two strategies prove the asserted value.

We will also use the following observation: deleting two equal lengths from the sorted list does not change \(D\). Equal entries can be placed consecutively, so their contributions cancel, and deleting them preserves the signs of all later entries.

Set \[ u=\frac{1}{2^{n+1}-1}. \]

We first show that Liu can guarantee \((1+u)/2\). He places his \(n\) marks so that the resulting \(n+1\) intervals have lengths \[ a_i=2^iu,\qquad i=0,1,\ldots,n. \] These lengths sum to \(1\).

After Xiang places his marks, there are at most \(2n+1\) pieces. Sort their lengths as above and pair them as \[ (x_1,x_2),\ (x_3,x_4),\ \ldots, \] leaving \(x_p\) unpaired if \(p\) is odd.

Construct a graph whose vertices are the original intervals \(0,1,\ldots,n\). Each pair of pieces gives an edge joining the original intervals containing those two pieces. Loops and multiple edges are allowed. This graph has \(n+1\) vertices and \[ \left\lfloor\frac p2\right\rfloor\le n \] edges.

Consequently, some connected component is a tree, possibly a single isolated vertex. To see this, every connected component on \(v\) vertices contains a spanning tree with \(v-1\) edges. If no component were itself a tree, each would have at least \(v\) edges, giving at least \(n+1\) edges altogether.

Choose such a tree component and divide its vertices into two classes \(A,B\) so that every edge joins the two classes. This is possible by assigning classes according to the parity of the distance from any chosen root.

Consider \[ S=\sum_{i\in A}a_i-\sum_{i\in B}a_i. \] Expand each \(a_i\) as the sum of the lengths of its final pieces. Every paired edge in this component contributes the difference between its two piece lengths, with one of the two possible signs. The sole possible unpaired piece contributes either its length or its negative if it belongs to the component. Therefore, by the triangle inequality, \[ |S| \le \sum_{j=1}^{\lfloor p/2\rfloor}(x_{2j-1}-x_{2j}) +\begin{cases} x_p,&p\text{ odd},\\ 0,&p\text{ even} \end{cases} =D. \]

On the other hand, let \(r\) be the largest index in this component. Its contribution to \(S\) has absolute value \(2^ru\), whereas all smaller indices together have total length at most \((2^r-1)u\). Hence \[ |S|\ge 2^ru-\sum_{i=0}^{r-1}2^iu=u. \] Thus \(D\ge u\), regardless of Xiang’s marks. Liu can consequently guarantee \[ \frac{1+u}{2}=\frac{2^n}{2^{n+1}-1}. \]

We now prove the matching upper bound. Suppose Liu’s marks create \(m\le n+1\) intervals. Marks at the endpoints, if any, can be ignored.

If \(m\le n\), Xiang bisects every interval, using at most \(n\) marks. All resulting pieces occur in equal pairs, so \(D=0\). Thus Liu can obtain at most \(1/2\) against optimal play.

It remains to consider \(m=n+1\). Write the interval lengths as \(b_1,\ldots,b_m\). Their \(2^m\) subset sums all lie in \([0,1]\), with smallest sum \(0\) and largest sum \(1\). List these sums in nondecreasing order, retaining repetitions. Since their \(2^m-1\) consecutive gaps sum to \(1\), two distinct subsets have sums differing by some \[ 0\le\delta\le\frac1{2^m-1}=u. \] Remove their common indices. This gives disjoint sets \(A,B\), not both empty, whose total lengths satisfy \[ \alpha=\sum_{i\in A}b_i,\qquad \beta=\sum_{i\in B}b_i,\qquad \alpha\ge\beta,\qquad \alpha-\beta=\delta. \]

We claim that Xiang can use at most \(m-1\) marks so that all pieces, except for pieces of total length \(\delta\), occur in equal pairs.

If \(B\) is empty, simply bisect every interval outside \(A\). This uses \[ m-|A|\le m-1 \] marks, and the remaining intervals have total length \(\alpha=\delta\).

Otherwise both sets are nonempty. Conceptually arrange the intervals of \(A\) end to end in one row of length \(\alpha\), and those of \(B\) in another row of length \(\beta\), with their left endpoints aligned. On the common portion \([0,\beta]\), copy every interval boundary in either row to the other row, making a cut there whenever necessary. Also cut the first row at \(\beta\) if this lies inside one of its intervals.

The two rows now have identical subdivisions on \([0,\beta]\), giving equal pairs. The remaining portion of the first row has total length \(\delta\). There are at most \[ (|A|-1)+(|B|-1)+1=|A|+|B|-1 \] new cuts: each internal boundary of a row requires at most one cut in the other, and the endpoint \(\beta\) requires at most one further cut. This also covers \(\alpha=\beta\), when that further cut is unnecessary.

Finally, bisect every original interval outside \(A\cup B\). The total number of marks is at most \[ |A|+|B|-1+(m-|A|-|B|)=m-1=n, \] proving the claim. The row arrangement is only a way to specify cuts within the original intervals; no physical rearrangement is needed.

Delete all the equal pairs from the sorted list of final piece lengths. This leaves \(D\) unchanged. The remaining pieces have total length \(\delta\), so their alternating sum is at most \(\delta\). Consequently, \[ D\le\delta\le u. \] By playing optimally in the claiming stage, Xiang therefore ensures that Liu receives at most \[ \frac{1+u}{2}=\frac{2^n}{2^{n+1}-1}. \] Together with Liu’s strategy, this proves the answer.

The solution was checked against Evan Chen's published IMO solution notes.